The idea that evolution can work by the differential survival of entire groups of organisms, rather than just of individuals, was rejected because it is mathematically implausible.

• 群体选择理论认为：进化由生物整个群体水平的生存能力差异来产生，而不是个体水平的生存差异。这一理论之所以被抛弃是因为它不符合数学逻辑。